Biological

= The biological or physiological level explains behavior in terms of physiology meaning that it explains behavior in terms of the brain, genes, neurotransmitters and hormones    =

===**Principles** ===
 * Behavior is biologically determined by physiological processes such as the nervous system neurotransmitters (//e.g.// serotonin) and the endocrine system (hormones //e.g.//  testosterone)
 * The above principle was expressed as "all that is psychological is first physiological" (Sperry)
 * Patterns of behavior can be inherited through genetics
 * The study of animals can inform our understanding of human behavior

===**Principles of the Biological Level Demonstrated in Theories and Research** ===
 * Localization of function (Broca's Area in speech production) discovered through post mortem analysis of brains
 * Genetic predisposition of schizophrenia using correlational twin research [|(Gottesman and Shields, 1976)]
 * The dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia - amphetamines increase positive symptoms of schizophrenia in normal patients and increases positive symptoms further in schizophrenic patients [|(Laruelle] [| //et al//.] [|, 1996)]
 * The monoamine hypothesis of depression

===<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">**Research Methods** ===
 * Experiments
 * Observations
 * Correlational Studies
 * Twin studies
 * Adoption studies
 * Family studies
 * Ethical Concerns

===<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">**Physiology and Behaviour** === ====<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">**Localization of Function** ====
 * Broca's Area - Involved in speech production
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: circle; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Patients with Broca's aphasia lack <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #0000ee; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">[|fluency of speech]
 * Wernicke's Area - Involved in speech comprehension
 * Patients can produce speech but not comprehend it

====<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">**Effects of Neurotransmission on Behavior** ====
 * Dopamine
 * Voluntary movement
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: square; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Rats with lesioned nucleus accumbens show impulsive behavior <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #0000ee; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">[|(Cardinal] <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #0000ee; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-weight: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">[|et al] <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #0000ee; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">[|., 2001)]
 * Learning
 * Pleasure
 * Serotonin
 * Sleep
 * Arousal Levels
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: square; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Inhibits risk-taking behaviorin rhesus monkeys <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #0000ee; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">[|(Higley] <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #0000ee; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-weight: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">[|et al] <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #0000ee; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">[|., 1992)]
 * Emotion
 * Happiness
 * Monks hallucinated after 48 hours of no food or water - linked to increased serotonin levels (Kasamatsu & Hirai, 1999)

====<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">**Functions of Two Hormones on Behavior** ====
 * Testosterone - Aggression
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Vasopressin - <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #0000ee; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">[|Fidelity and Love]
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Oxytocin - <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #0000ee; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">[|Trust] [|(Damasio, 2005)]

====<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">**Effects of Environment on Physiological Processes** ====
 * Brain plasticity - ability to rewire connections between neurons
 * Enriching environment leads to increased cortical thickness in rats compared to boring environment (Rosenzweig & Bennett, 1972)
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Environmental stressors at work can increase our susceptibility to disease ( <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">//e.g.// <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> heart disease). Do Google employees have this problem? Check out this <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #0000ee; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">[|video]
 * Eating disorders can disrupt the menstrual cycle - can be considered an evolutionary mechanism to prevent an unprepared woman from conceiving a child
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Sleep deprivation in rats causes increased metabolism (210-270%) despite increased food intake and for most rats eventual death <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #0000ee; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">[|__(Rechtschaffen & Bergman, 1995)]
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #0000ee; font-family: "Verdana"; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: 400; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">[|Menstrual Synchronicity]

====<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">**Interaction between Cognition and Physiology in Terms of Behavior** ====
 * Meditation produces gamma waves found using a PET scan with monks (Davidson, 2004)
 * Did not account for confounding variable of practice since monks meditate a lot

====<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">**Brain Imaging Techniques** ====
 * EEG - records brain waves
 * Cannot show what is happening in deeper brain regions
 * Cannot show actual functioning of brain regions
 * PET - monitors glucose metabolism in brain via injection of radioactive glucose
 * Can record ongoing activity like thinking
 * fMRI - provides 3D image of brain
 * Easier to carry out compared to PET
 * Higher resolution than PET
 * Cannot record ongoing activity - just snapshots

=
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">**Evaluation** =====
 * MRI scanners are unnatural environments for cognition - ecological validity
 * Colors in images may exaggerate activity in brain regions
 * Equipment may not be sophisticated enough to detect subtle brain activity
 * Brain areas activate for various reasons because the brain is highly interconnected so you cannot conclude that just because the amygdala is activated the patient is experiencing fear

===<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">**Genetics and Behavior** === ====<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">**Extent of Genetic Inheritance on Behavior** ====
 * Huntington's - Only neurodegenerative disease with a 100% genetic cause
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Schizophrenia - DISC1 implicated <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #0000ee; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">[|(Hennah] <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #0000ee; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-weight: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">[|_//et al//] <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #0000ee; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">[|., 2006)]
 * Diathesis stress model - environment and genetics
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Affective Disorders - Short and Long Serotonin Transporter Genes implicated in disposition to depression <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #0000ee; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">[|(Caspi_] <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #0000ee; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-weight: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">[|//et al//] <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #0000ee; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">[|., 2003)] [|(Du_] <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #0000ee; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-weight: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">[|//et al//] <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #0000ee; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">[|., 1999)]
 * Diathesis stress model is most accepted

=
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">**Intelligence** =====
 * Both genetics and environment play crucial role
 * Poverty tends to correlate with low IQ
 * Meta-analysis of 111 studies found highest correlation for IQ was kinship (Bouchard & McGue, 1981)
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Minnesota Twin Study <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #0000ee; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">[|__(Bouchard_] <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #0000ee; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-weight: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">[|//et al//.] <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #0000ee; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">[|, 1990)]
 * MZ twins raised together compared to MZ twins raised apart longitudinal study
 * Estimate that heritability accounts for about 70% of intelligence
 * Criticism
 * Media coverage to recruit participants - possible sample bias
 * Ethical concerns about how he reunited the twins who were reared apart
 * No control over how often the twins reared apart visited each other prior to study
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: square; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Equal environment assumption - cannot assume twins raised together experience same environments ( <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">//e.g.// <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> treatment from parents, experience with friends and peers in school and at home)
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Adoption studies (Scarr & Weinberg, 1977; Horn <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">//et al.// <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">, 1979)
 * No significant difference found in correlations despite adoptive parents being wealthy, white and with high IQ and adopted children being from poor backgrounds

====<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">**Ethical Considerations for Research into Genetic Influences** ====
 * Undue stress on patients being tested for Neurodegenerative diseases (Alzheimer's, Parkinson's but less with Huntington's because of reliability of prognosis)
 * Parents can feel responsible for fate of the child
 * Patient may feel less responsible for their disease and make less of an effort to recover, instead relying on medications to do the psychological work

====<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">**Evolutionary Explanation of Behavior: Disgust** ====
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Promotes survival <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #0000ee; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">[|(Fessler, 2006)]
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Confirmed by online survey that found participants had the strongest disgust reaction to stimuli which threatened the immune system <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #0000ee; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">[|__(Curtis_] <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #0000ee; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-weight: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">[|//et al//.] <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #0000ee; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">[|, 2004)]
 * Has also been related to biological preparedness and phobias because animals that elicit a disgust response can be poisonous and avoiding these creatures because they evoke disgust further promotes survival

=
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">**Evaluation of Evolutionary Arguments** =====
 * Testing evolutionary theories of behavior is empirically difficult so researchers may be led astray by confirmation bias
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">We know little, if anything, about <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">//Homo sapiens’// <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> behavior - it is purely speculative
 * Disregard the role of culture in shaping behavior

===<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">**Additional Resources** ===
 * [|Inside the Teenage Brain]
 * [|Birth Order and Intelligence]
 * [|Race and Intelligence: Science's Last Taboo]
 * [|Ruled by birth order?]
 * [|Gut Bacteria May Contribute to Autism]
 * [|Don't waste lab animals]
 * [|Comparison of Brain Scanning Technologies]
 * [|Evaluation of Brain Scanning Technologies]
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #0000ee; font-family: "Verdana"; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: 400; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">[|Unlocking Alzheimer's - New Keys to a Cure]
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #0000ee; font-family: "Verdana"; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: 400; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">[|Decoding Dementia]
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #0000ee; font-family: "Verdana"; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: 400; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">[|Advantages of Autism]
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #0000ee; font-family: "Verdana"; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: 400; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">[|Scars that won't heal - The neurobiology of child abuse]
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #0000ee; font-family: "Verdana"; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: 400; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">[|Psychedelic Healing]
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #0000ee; font-family: "Verdana"; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: 400; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">[|Second Life video simulating schizophrenic hallucinations]