Qualitative+Research

HL Only!

Distinguish between qualitative and quantitative data

 *  Quantitative - used to extrapolate beyond sample tested (usually measured in numbers)
 *  Qualitative - rich data that is highly descriptive (usually some form of text generated by participant)

Strengths

 *  Rich data
 *  Good for investigating complex situations (e.g. Phineas Gage, Genie)
 *  Tends to be more experimentally valid if the individual studied remains in their environment

Limitations

 *  Time-consuming
 *  Tons of data to deal with so analysis can be problematic
 *  Interpreting results can be affected by the experimenter - use reflexivity to minimize this

To what extent can findings be generalized from qualitative studies?

 *  Representative generalization - Individual studied is not representative of the population
 *  Inferential generaliztion - because individual is rare and unique we cannot extrapolate the findings to the general population
 *  Theoretical generalization - data may be used to generate a theory (inductive) or to confirm one (hypothetico-deductive)

Discuss ethical considerations in qualitative research

 *  Informed consent (Genie)
 *  Protecting individuals from psychological and physical harm
 *  Anonymity and confidentiality must be maintained

Discuss sampling techniques appropriate to qualitative research

 *  Purposive sampling
 *  Snowball sampling - less time and energy required
 * <span style="mso-list: l23 level1 lfo6; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"> Convenience sampling

Explain effects of participant expectations and researcher bias in qualitative research

 * <span style="mso-list: l9 level1 lfo7; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"> Participants expectations - participant behaves in a way to please the researcher
 * <span style="mso-list: l9 level1 lfo7; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"> Researcher bias - beliefs affect interpretation of participant behavior

Explain the important of credibility in qualitative research

 * <span style="mso-list: l14 level1 lfo8; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"> Credibility is related to internal validity and how well the data reflects the beliefs/opinions/meanings of the participants
 * <span style="mso-list: l14 level1 lfo8; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"> Importance of peer-review
 * <span style="mso-list: l14 level1 lfo8; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"> Using other researchers' interpretations to validate conclusions

Explain the effect of triangulation on the credibility of qualitative research

 * <span style="mso-list: l13 level1 lfo9; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"> Method triangulation - using different techniques to gather data - could be qualitative and quantitative (e.g. IAT and observation to investigate racial bias)
 * <span style="mso-list: l13 level1 lfo9; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"> Data triangulation - use data gathered from various qualitative methods (e.g. interview and observation to investigate prejudice)
 * <span style="mso-list: l13 level1 lfo9; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"> Researcher triangulation - use multiple researchers to agree on interpretations (Bandura did this)
 * <span style="mso-list: l13 level1 lfo9; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"> Theory triangulation - use several theories to analyze the data
 * <span style="mso-list: l13 level1 lfo9; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"> Space triangulation - use more than one setting/culture
 * <span style="mso-list: l13 level1 lfo9; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"> Some researchers argue you can never have an accurate account because of the nature of subjective experience
 * <span style="mso-list: l13 level1 lfo9; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"> Fielding & Fielding argue that the purest data and subsequent explanation arises from one method
 * <span style="mso-list: l13 level2 lfo9; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 1.0in;"> Example - single malt whiskey is pure and tastes better than a blended whiskey

Explain reflexivity in qualitative research

 * <span style="mso-list: l4 level1 lfo10; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"> Important that researcher is aware of his/her own beliefs so they do not affect the interpretation of behavior
 * <span style="mso-list: l4 level1 lfo10; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"> Researcher must reflect on his/her own beliefs and attempt to separate them if they are not to affect the data
 * <span style="mso-list: l4 level1 lfo10; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"> Willig's (2001) two forms of reflexivity
 * <span style="mso-list: l4 level2 lfo10; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 1.0in;"> Personal reflexivity - values, beliefs, experiences, political faction, socioeconomic class, personal interest in the results can influence the research both professionally and personally
 * <span style="mso-list: l4 level2 lfo10; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 1.0in;"> Epistemological reflexivity - related to how data was gathered, limited understanding of a particular group of people can restrict the amount of data gathered

Strengths

 * <span style="mso-list: l25 level1 lfo11; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"> Good for collecting data on socially sensitive subjects (e.g. sexual preferences, views on racism) because it is one-on-one
 * <span style="mso-list: l25 level1 lfo11; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"> Should be less biased by researcher's preconceptions
 * <span style="mso-list: l25 level1 lfo11; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"> Because it is an open-ended approach, participants can elaborate and clarify
 * <span style="mso-list: l25 level1 lfo11; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"> The theme is chosen in advance so non-relevant material is avoided

Limitations

 * <span style="mso-list: l10 level1 lfo12; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"> Data analysis is time-consuming
 * <span style="mso-list: l10 level1 lfo12; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"> One-on-one situation can be considered artificial which calls into question ecological validity

Strengths

 * <span style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo13; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"> Fast and convenient way to collect data from individuals concurrently
 * <span style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo13; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"> Provides natural setting which can give ecological validity
 * <span style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo13; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"> Uncovers knowledge and experience about what, how and why they think about a particular topic through the register (vocabulary, metaphors, sentence structure) they use
 * <span style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo13; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"> Can reveal cultural values and group norms

Limitations

 * <span style="mso-list: l3 level1 lfo14; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"> Not always appropriate for a research question (e.g. sexual preferences or fetishes)
 * <span style="mso-list: l3 level1 lfo14; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"> Participants may not disclose all relevant information for fear of embarrassment or being judged
 * <span style="mso-list: l3 level1 lfo14; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"> Conformity can confound the results
 * <span style="mso-list: l3 level1 lfo14; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"> Ethical issues in conducting focus groups in non-free environments like prisons and nursing homes (informed consent, no freedom to choose)

Strengths

 * <span style="mso-list: l22 level1 lfo15; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"> Good at elucidating complexity of individual experience because it shows how humans construct meaning in their lives
 * <span style="mso-list: l22 level1 lfo15; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"> Can be used for all kinds of people as it only requires everyday speech - education level

Limitations

 * <span style="mso-list: l7 level1 lfo16; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"> Tons of data to analyze which is time-consuming to transcribe and analyze

Explain how researchers use inductive content analysis on interview transcripts

 * <span style="mso-list: l8 level1 lfo17; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"> Themes are extracted by identifying patterns in words used, recurring symbols in pictures and properties of speech like pitch and emphasis

Participant

 * <span style="mso-list: l15 level1 lfo18; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"> Researcher becomes part of the group
 * <span style="mso-list: l15 level1 lfo18; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"> Participates in their rituals etc
 * <span style="mso-list: l15 level1 lfo18; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"> Researcher notes their experience of the people and attempts to gain insight into how the target group thinks and why they behave the way they do

Strengths

 * <span style="mso-list: l12 level1 lfo19; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"> Combines emic (subjective participant view) with etic (objective observer interpretation)
 * <span style="mso-list: l12 level1 lfo19; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"> Rich knowledge on inner-workings of a group that cannot be gained via other methods
 * <span style="mso-list: l12 level1 lfo19; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"> Can help avoid researcher bias because the researcher becomes part of the group and thus attempts to understand the social processes instead of imposing their own views (if researcher did do this, his/her cover would be blown and ruin the study)
 * <span style="mso-list: l12 level1 lfo19; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"> Holistic interpretation because many aspects and perspectives of the group are considered for analysis

Evaluate the use of case studies in research

 * <span style="mso-list: l18 level1 lfo20; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"> Types of case study (Willig, 2001)
 * <span style="mso-list: l18 level2 lfo20; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 1.0in;"> Intrinsic - interesting in and of themselves (//e.g.// Genie)
 * <span style="mso-list: l18 level2 lfo20; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 1.0in;"> Instrumental - tend to have more practical use
 * <span style="mso-list: l18 level2 lfo20; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 1.0in;"> Descriptive - provides detail of a phenomenon
 * <span style="mso-list: l18 level2 lfo20; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 1.0in;"> Explanatory - describe and provide possible explanations for phenomenon
 * <span style="mso-list: l18 level1 lfo20; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"> Case study is not a research method but a research strategy
 * <span style="mso-list: l18 level1 lfo20; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"> Case studies tend to use triangulation

Strengths

 * <span style="mso-list: l17 level1 lfo21; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"> Provides opportunity to study phenomena that would be unethical to cause deliberately
 * <span style="mso-list: l17 level1 lfo21; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"> Rich insight into social and group processes
 * <span style="mso-list: l17 level1 lfo21; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"> Can stimulate new lines of research previously neglected because no rare individual or group was available to study
 * <span style="mso-list: l17 level1 lfo21; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"> If case study findings contradict existing theories, new theories can be developed

Limitations

 * <span style="mso-list: l2 level1 lfo22; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"> Defining a case study is problematic (Willig, 2001)
 * <span style="mso-list: l2 level1 lfo22; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"> Researcher bias can affect interpretation of data
 * <span style="mso-list: l2 level1 lfo22; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"> Memory distortions in narrative interviews
 * <span style="mso-list: l2 level1 lfo22; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"> Social desirability effects in focus groups

Ethical Considerations

 * <span style="mso-list: l19 level1 lfo23; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"> Anonymize individuals in the case study by giving them a pseudonym to protect their identity
 * <span style="mso-list: l19 level1 lfo23; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"> Investigating certain phenomena can be traumatic to recall
 * <span style="mso-list: l19 level2 lfo23; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 1.0in;"> Child soldiers recalling what it was like to be young and murder individuals could cause feelings of anxiety, depression or guilt
 * <span style="mso-list: l19 level2 lfo23; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 1.0in;"> Must ensure psychological well-being of individuals is maintained

Explain how a case study could be used to investigate a problem in an organization or group

 * <span style="mso-list: l24 level1 lfo24; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"> Investigating the psychological effects of child soldiers who have grown up
 * <span style="mso-list: l24 level1 lfo24; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"> Use a mixture of surveys to assess mood and anxiety levels, narrative interviews to gain perspective on the personal experience of the soldiers and focus groups to see how they behave in groups
 * <span style="mso-list: l24 level1 lfo24; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"> Use inductive content analysis to determine themes and draw any conclusions

Discuss the extent to which findings can be generalized from a single case study

 * <span style="mso-list: l6 level1 lfo25; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"> Quantitative researchers argue that case studies cannot be replicated and cannot be used for prediction so the results cannot be generalized
 * <span style="mso-list: l6 level1 lfo25; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"> Small sample sizes in case studies are not statistically representative so they cannot be generalized
 * <span style="mso-list: l6 level2 lfo25; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 1.0in;"> Hammersley (1992) argues that evidence from other studies that provide converging evidence to previous case studies allow some generalization to individuals similar to those used in the studies
 * <span style="mso-list: l6 level1 lfo25; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"> Single case study can be used for inferential generalization
 * <span style="mso-list: l6 level2 lfo25; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 1.0in;"> If findings can be applicable to similar settings //e.g.// teaching strategies in one school by one teacher as a possible link to improving children's motivation to learn
 * <span style="mso-list: l6 level2 lfo25; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 1.0in;"> Further research will be necessary to gain further support for the teaching strategy hypothesis to rule out that it was not the teacher's personality (//e.g.// enthusiasm for the subject) or the diligence and eagerness to learn of the students
 * <span style="mso-list: l6 level1 lfo25; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"> Yin (1994) claims that single case studies have theoretical generalization but cannot be extrapolated to the general population

Additional Resources

 * <span style="mso-list: l21 level1 lfo26; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"> Examples of Interview Types
 * <span style="mso-list: l21 level1 lfo26; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"> Dr. Mitchell's Notes